The scientific basis for the New Water Paradigm

Laying out the field of watercology

The New Water Paradigm is about retaining the rainwater in our landscapes so that it can hydrate the vegetation, keep rivers running year round, replenish groundwater, and provide enough evapotranspiration for the small water cycle to be maintained; the small water cycle being where the water evapotranspires from the vegetation and soil and helps create rain. These practices can help us out of our drought-heat-fire-flood destructive cycles, by hydrating our landscapes into dry season, by restoring rains, by cooling our lands through evaporative cooling, and by absorbing large amounts of water into the landscape so floods do not gain so much strength.

There is a lot of science behind the small water cycle (called moisture recycling and precipitation recyling in the science literature) and the new water paradigm. This knowledge though is scattered across many subdisciplines of climate science and ecology. What I would like to help create with others, is a map of this knowledge, and codification of this knowledge into a set of water principles. This field of knowledge could go by the name watercology or some other collectively chosen name.

Here is the beginnings of a map of the scientific literature that supports the New Water Paradigm, with some of my notes about the papers, and organized into groups of scientific references (this newsletter format also has a size limit, so I had to chop out half the references here. If you would like the full list, let me know your email in comments, or email me at alplo@yahoo.com and I will send it to you).

If you want to look up more papers you can go to scholar.google.com and type in the author or name of the paper. It will then give you a doi number. You can get a copy of the paper on sci-hub.ru , or sci-hub.se, or sci-hub.st , by inputting the doi number.

NEW WATER PARADIGM

Juraj Kohutiar, Michal Kravcik. Water for an integrative climate paradigm. International Journal of Water, 2010; 5 (4): 298 DOI: 10.1504/IJW.2010.038725 https://sci-hub.st/10.1504/IJW.2010.038725

"New water paradigm: Water for the recovery of the climate" M. Kravčík, J. Pokorný, J. Kohutiar, M. Kováč, E. Tóth http://www.waterparadigm.org/download/Water_for_the_Recovery_of_the_Climate_A_New_Water_Paradigm.pdf

"The new water paradigm: in a nutshell" Judith Schwartz https://www.waterandclimate.work/blog/the-new-water-paradigm-in-a-nutshell

This well written scientific paper reads a like a manifesto for the new water paradigm

Savenije, Hubert HG. "Does moisture feedback affect rainfall significantly?." Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 20, no. 5-6 (1995): 507-513. https://sci-hub.yncjkj.com/10.1016/s0079-1946(96)00014-6

SMALL WATER CYCLE, MOISTURE RECYCLING: EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AFFECTS RAIN

Evapotranspiration contributes from 20-100% to rainfall. Dryer areas like California and Northern Africa it contributes less. see map Anderson, B.T., A.C. Ruane, J.O. Roads,

M. Kanamitsu, and G. Salvucci, 2008: A new metric for estimating local moisture cycling and its influence upon seasonal precipitation rates. J. Hydrometeorol., 9, 576-588, doi:10.1175/2007JHM968.1 https://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/abs/an09000a.html

Bisselink, B., and A. J. Dolman, 2008: Precipitation recycling: Moisture sources over Europe using ERA-40 data. J. Hydro-meteor., 9, 1073–1083 https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/9/5/2008jhm962_1.xml

Power law of amount of precipation recycled depending on distance travelled, amazon 56%, missipippi 35%, eurasia 11%, Sahel 35%

Eltahir, E. A. B., and R. L. Bras, 1996: Precipitation recycling. Rev. Geophys., 34, 367–378. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/96RG01927     ,  https://sci-hub.st/https://doi.org/10.1029/96RG01927

water vapor travels 500-2000km in tropics before it becomes rain again in moisture recyling. it travels 3000-5000km in temperate regions, and 7000 km in desert regions. Time of recyling is 3 to 20 days, except in deserts where it is much longer

van der Ent, R. J. and Savenije, H. H. G.: Length and time scales of atmospheric moisture recycling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1853–1863, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-1853-2011, 2011. https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/11/1853/2011/

Van der Ent, Rudi J., Hubert HG Savenije, Bettina Schaefli, and Susan C. Steele‐Dunne. "Origin and fate of atmospheric moisture over continents." Water Resources Research 46, no. 9 (2010)

Savenije, Hubert HG. "New definitions for moisture recycling and the relationship with land-use changes in the Sahel." Journal of Hydrology 167, no. 1-4 (1995): 57-78

In some areas of the world, western and central parts of North America, part of the Eurasia mid-latitude, and Sahel in boreal summer and over most of Australia, Argentina, and South Africa in austral summer, evapotranspiration is more strongly coupled with rain 

Zeng, X., Barlage, M. J., Castro, C., & Fling, K. (2010). Comparison of land-precipitation coupling strength using observations and models. Journal Of Hydrometeorology, 11, 979-994. doi:10.1175/2010JHM1226.1 http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/~castro/Reviewedpubs/R-15.pdf

Brubaker, K. L., Entekhabi, D., & Eagleson, P. S. (1993). Estimation of Continental Precipitation Recycling, Journal of Climate, 6(6), 1077-1089. Retrieved Feb 28, 2022, from https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/6/6/1520-0442_1993_006_1077_eocpr_2_0_co_2.xml

In the summer, water vapor for midlatitude and high latitude precipitation tends to be recycled locally, whereas low latitude continental precipitation is more dependent on oceanic moisture sources' quote from

Koster, R., J. Jouzel, R. Suozzo, G. Russell, W. Broecker, D. Rind, and P. Eagleson, 1986: Global sources of local precipitation as determined by the NASA/GISS GCM. Geophys. Res. Lett., 13, 121-124, doi:10.1029/GL013i002p00121. https://sci-hub.yncjkj.com/10.1029/GL013i002p00121

9-12% of summer precipitation comes from the Great Lakes for Michigan, midwest area in United States

Machavaram M, Krishnamurthy R. 1995. Earth surface evaporative process: A case study from the Great Lakes region of the United States based on deuterium excess in precipitation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59: 4279–4283

ShanDong Province in China had rainfall from local evaporation from Oct to May (colder wetter season), June to Sept rainfall was from Pacific Ocean

Wang, Ying, Bu-li Cui, Dong-sheng Li, Ya-xuan Wang, Wan-xin Yu, and He-hua Zong. "Stable Isotopes Reveal Water Vapor Sources of Precipitation over the Jiaolai Plain, Shandong Peninsula, China." Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences (2021): 1-15 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13143-021-00253-2

Gustafsson M, Rayner D, Chen D (2010) Extreme rainfall events in southern Sweden: where does the moisture come from? Tellus See Meteor Ocean 62(5):605–616 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2010.00456.x

Iowa had minimum recycled precipitation from land

Iqbal, M.Z. (2008), Short-term variability in isotopic composition of precipitation: A case study from the Midwestern United States. Hydrol. Process., 22: 4609-4619. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7066

MOISTURE HOPS ACROSS CONTINENTS IN SMALL WATER CYCLE SEQUENCE

Water moisture hops across USA, starting from west coast and going east. Southwest moisture accounted for 15% of rains in Great Plains region. During drought 2000-2003 that amount decreased by 45%.

Dominguez, F., Villegas, J. C., and Breshears, D. D. (2009), Spatial extent of the North American Monsoon: Increased cross-regional linkages via atmospheric pathways, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L07401, doi:10.1029/2008GL037012

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION & WATER CYCLE AFFECTS LANDSCAPE SUSTAINABILITY

Eiseltová, Martina & Pokorný, Jan & Hesslerova, Petra & Ripl, Wilhelm. (2012). Evapotranspiration _ A Driving Force in Landscape Sustainability. 10.5772/19441 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221922386_Evapotranspiration_A_Driving_Force_in_Landscape_Sustainability

Ripl, W. & Eiseltová, Martina. (2009). Sustainable land management by restoration of short water cycles and prevention of irreversible matter losses from topsoils. Plant, Soil and Environment. 55. 404-410. 10.17221/133/2009-PSE https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288438537_Sustainable_land_management_by_restoration_of_short_water_cycles_and_prevention_of_irreversible_matter_losses_from_topsoils

SOIL MOISTURE INCREASES EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Adam J. Purdy, Joshua B. Fisher, Michael L. Goulden, Andreas Colliander, Gregory Halverson, Kevin Tu, James S. Famiglietti, SMAP soil moisture improves global evapotranspiration, Remote Sensing of Environment, Volume 219, 2018, Pages 1-14, ISSN 0034-4257, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.09.023

 SOIL MOISTURE IMPACT ON CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION

If soil can hold moisture longer, then it has an effect on rain.

Dirmeyer, Paul A, C. Adam Schlosser, and Kaye L Brubaker. “Precipitation, Recycling, and Land Memory: An Integrated Analysis.” Journal of Hydrometeorology (2009): 278-288.  2008

American Meteorological Society https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/10/1/2008jhm1016_1.xml

Satellite photos of rain and soil moisture

Taylor, C. M., and Ellis, R. J. (2006), Satellite detection of soil moisture impacts on convection at the mesoscale, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L03404, doi:10.1029/2005GL025252

How soil influences clouds depends on stability above boundary layer

Ek, M. B., & Holtslag, A. A. M. (2004). Influence of Soil Moisture on Boundary Layer Cloud Development, Journal of Hydrometeorology, 5(1), 86-99 https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/5/1/1525-7541_2004_005_0086_iosmob_2_0_co_2.xml

COASTAL DEGRADATION LEADS TO DROUGHT

Juli G Pausas, Millán M Millán, Greening and Browning in a Climate Change Hotspot: The Mediterranean Basin, BioScience, Volume 69, Issue 2, February 2019, Pages 143–151, doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy157 https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/69/2/143/5254231?login=false

LAND DEGRADATION CAN LEAD TO DESERTIFICATION

Millán, M. M. et al (2005). Climatic Feedbacks and Desertification: The Mediterranean Model, Journal of Climate, 18(5), 684-701. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/18/5/jcli-3283.1.xml

Millán,Millán. (2014). Extreme hydrometeorological events and climate change predictions in Europe. Journal of Hydrology 518 (2014) 206-224. Journal of Hydrology. 518. 206-224. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268630896_Extreme_hydrometeorological_events_and_climate_change_predictions_in_Europe_Journal_of_Hydrology_518_2014_206-224

DEFORESTATION CAN LEAD TO STACKED WATER VAPOR IN ATMOSPHERE THAT LEADS TO EXTREME PRECIPITATION AND FLOODS

Millán, M. M. (2014). Extreme hydrometeorological events and climate change predictions in Europe. Journal of Hydrology, 518, 206–224. https://www.academia.edu/29263947/Extreme_hydrometeorological_events_and_climate_change_predictions_in_Europe?fbclid=IwAR0_FgmBQYvkEzPZ2HAurFYxqQCGp4z1G_dlawt6cCiDKppE8IM7deeZkSQ

DEFORESTRATION LEADS TO LESS RAIN AND MORE WARMING

Sampaio, G., Nobre, C., Costa, M. H., Satyamurty, P., Soares-Filho, B. S., and Cardoso, M. (2007), Regional climate change over eastern Amazonia caused by pasture and soybean cropland expansion, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L17709, doi:10.1029/2007GL030612. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2007GL030612

DEFORESTRATION INCREASES WIND SPEED WHICH TAKES AWAY WATER VAPOR, DECREASING RAIN

A simulation of Amazon that replaced forest with crops shows moisture recycling ratio is same in wet season, but winds increase, blowing away water vapor. Crops have higher evapotranspiration.

Eiras-Barca, J., Dominguez, F., Yang, Z., Chug, D., Nieto, R., Gimeno,

L. and Miguez-Macho, G. (2020), Changes in South American hydroclimate under projected Amazonian deforestation. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1472: 104-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14364

TREES CREATE RAIN

Water vapor forming clouds over Amazon had water isotopes from trees that are not from ocean.

Jonathon S. Wright, Rong Fu, John R. Worden, Sudip Chakraborty, Nicholas E. Clinton, Camille Risi, Ying Sun, Lei Yin "Rainforest-initiated wet season onset " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Aug 2017, 114 (32) 8481-8486; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1621516114 https://www.pnas.org/content/114/32/8481.abstract. 

David Ellison, Cindy E. Morris, et al. 2017. "Trees, forests and water: Cool insights for a hot world."  Global Environmental Change 43 (2017) 51–61 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378017300134

Shukla, J and Mintz, Y, 1982. "Influence of Land-Surface Evapotranspiration on the Earth’s Climate"  Science 19 Mar 1982: 1498-1501. Vol. 215, Issue 4539, pp. 1498-1501 DOI: 10.1126/science.215.4539.1498 https://science.sciencemag.org/content/215/4539/1498

Jonathon S. Wright, Rong Fu, John R. Worden, Sudip Chakraborty,

Nicholas E. Clinton, Camille Risi, Ying Sun, Lei Yin "Rainforest-initiated wet season onset". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Aug 2017, 114 (32) 8481-8486; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1621516114  https://www.pnas.org/content/114/32/8481

Spracklen, D., Arnold, S. & Taylor, C. 2012, "Observations of increased tropical rainfall preceded by air passage over forests" . Nature 489, 282–285 doi:10.1038/nature11390 https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11390

Nair et al-2011-"The role of land-use change on the development and evolution of the west coast trough, convective clouds, and precipitation in southwest Australia" Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres (1984-2012) https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2010JD014950

Spracklen, D., Arnold, S. & Taylor, C. 2012, "Observations of increased tropical rainfall preceded by air passage over forests." Nature 489, 282–285 doi:10.1038/nature11390 https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11390

Charles Massey – Farming in the Middle East and Australia: lessons about a brittle climate. ABC Saturday Extra https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/saturdayextra/farming-in-the-middle-east-and-australia:-lessons-about-a-britt/10794674

Judith D. Schwartz, 2013, Clearing Forests May Transform Local—and Global—Climate, Scientific American March 4, 2013 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/clearing-forests-may-transform-local-and-global-climate/

Pugh "Clearing our rain away" review article https://eastgippsland.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/NEFA_BP_Clearing_Our_Rainfall_Away.pdf

Native vegetation may create more clouds

Lyons, T.J. (2002) Clouds prefer native vegetation. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 80 (1-4). pp. 131-140

Vegetation-Precipitation feedback loops affect up to 30% of rain through vegetation photosynthesis and transpiration

Green JK, Konings AG, Alemohammad SH, Berry J, Entekhabi D, Kolassa J,

Lee JE, Gentine P. Regionally strong feedbacks between the atmosphere and terrestrial biosphere. Nat Geosci. 2017 May 29;Volume 10(Iss 6):410-414. doi: 10.1038/ngeo2957 https://sci-hub.se/10.1038/ngeo2957

general article about above paper https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-vegetation-alters-climate?fbclid=IwAR0zjlaG6JABP8uNQlqzkOUmDDX9efCCX5kLf4qEo-4xSuNzDnNmoN01mo4#gs.rjz557

TREES AND VEGETATION LESSEN EXTREME VARIATIONS OF RAIN

In Loess Plain there have been large reforestration efforts. Annual rainfall remained  about same, but rainfall frequency increased from 1982-2015, meaning less extreme precipitation events and drought

Liu, Zhengjia, and Yansui Liu. 2018. "Does Anthropogenic Land Use Change

Play a Role in Changes of Precipitation Frequency and Intensity over the Loess Plateau of China?" Remote Sensing 10, no. 11: 1818.

https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10111818  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/10/11/1818/htm

Forests buffer variations in precipitation downwind

O’Connor, J. C., Dekker, S. C., Staal, A., Tuinenburg, O. A., Rebel, K. T., and Santos, M. J.: Forests buffer against variations in precipitation,

Glob. Change Biol., 00, 1–11,  https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15763 , 2021

TREES INCREASE HUMIDITY

Georgi, N.J., Zafiriadis, K. The impact of park trees on microclimate in urban areas. Urban Ecosyst 9, 195–209 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-006-8590-9

Tahir, Hisham MM, and Tawhida A. Yousif. "Modeling the effect of urban trees on relative humidity in Khartoum State." Journal of Forest Products and Industries 2, no. 5 (2013): 20

BACTERIA SEED RAIN: BIOPRECIPITATION

Christner, Brent C. "Cloudy With a Chance of Microbes." Microbe 7.2

(2012): 70-75. Christner Research Group. Louisiana State University. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. http://brent.xner.net/pdf/Christner2012_CloudyMicrobes.pdf

Bacteria found in rain Manohar, Prasanth & Nachimuthu, Ramesh & Gothandam, K M & Sivamangala, Kathikeyan & Thamaraiselvan, Shanthini. (2015). Pseudomonas Syringae: An Overview and its future as a “Rain Making Bacteria.. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences. http://isca.in/IJBS/Archive/v4/i2/13.ISCA-IRJBS-2014-229.pdf

Maki et al. 1974. Ice Nucleation induced by Pseudomonas syringae. American Society for Microbiology Vol. 28, No. 3: 456-459. http://aem.asm.org/content/28/3/456.full.pdf+htm

Maki et al. 1974. Ice Nucleation induced by Pseudomonas syringae. American Society for Microbiology Vol. 28, No. 3: 456-459. http://aem.asm.org/content/28/3/456.full.pdf+htm

Morris et al. 2014. Bioprecipitation: a feedback cycle linking Earth history, ecosystem dynamics and land use through biological ice nucleators in the atmosphere. Global Change Biology Vol. 20: 341–351 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12447/epdf

Morris, C. E. et al. 2013. The life history of Pseudomonas syringae:

linking agriculture to earth system processes. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. Vol. 51: 85–104 http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102402

Kirkby Jet al.  2016. "Ion-induced nucleation of pure biogenic particles." Nature 533: 521–526. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27225125/

FORESTS AND VEGETATION COOL PLANET THROUGH CLOUD CREATION

Cerasoli S, Yin J, Porporato A. Cloud cooling effects of afforestation and reforestation at midlatitudes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021 Aug 17;118(33):e2026241118. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2026241118 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34373327/

General article about above paper https://engineering.princeton.edu/news/2021/08/09/planting-forests-may-cool-planet-more-thought?fbclid=IwAR0Kuxv5s0cOc7mpfigZ1KAlO9mD7EKgG8h4uXdy7k96InjJ-f1H_WbYEP4

For 67% of areas around world, forests would cool because of low lying clouds forests generate

Duveiller, G., Filipponi, F., Ceglar, A. et al. Revealing the widespread potential of forests to increase low level cloud cover. Nat Commun 12, 4337 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24551-5 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-24551-5

A review article of various effects

Huryna, H., Pokorný, J. The role of water and vegetation in the distribution of solar energy and local climate: a review.

Folia Geobot 51, 191–208 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12224-016-9261-0

Forests cool planet by about .5 celsius

Lawrence, D., Coe, M., Walker, W., Verchot, L. & Vandecar, K. Front. For. Glob. Change 2022 https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115

FORESTS & VEGETATION AFFECTS GLOBAL WATER CYCLE AND CLIMATE NONLOCALLY

A review of how vegetation affects water

Sheil, D. Forests, atmospheric water and an uncertain future: the new biology of the global water cycle. For. Ecosyst. 5, 19 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-018-0138-y https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40663-018-0138-y?fbclid=IwAR07VSVqp34OEJqHrwqMVncrVTfXWNJgrMXZzJxtDSKSQVcObEorAgsDLTw

Gabriel Popkin "Forests Emerge as a Major Overlooked Climate Factor", Quanta magazine (2018) https://www.quantamagazine.org/forests-emerge-as-a-major-overlooked-climate-factor-20181009/

Garcia, Elizabeth S., Swann, Abigail L. S., Villegas, Juan C., Breshears, David D., Law, Darin J., Saleska, Scott R., Stark, Scott C. Garcia (2016). Synergistic Ecoclimate Teleconnections from Forest Loss in Different Regions Structure Global Ecological Responses. PLOS ONE. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0165042

Amazon deforestration affects water vapor affects Rossby waves, decreases rain in USA. A climate model.

Medvigy, D., Walko, R. L., Otte, M. J., & Avissar, R. (2013). Simulated Changes in Northwest U.S. Climate in Response to Amazon Deforestation, Journal of Climate, 26(22), 9115-9136. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/26/22/jcli-d-12-00775.1.xml

Deforestration in Amazon may affect droughts in New Mexico, deforestration in central africa and south east asia affect weather patterns in usa

Avissar, R., & Werth, D. (2005). Global hydroclimatological teleconnections resulting from tropical deforestation. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 6(2), 134-145. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM406.1

RAINFALL AS FUNCTION OF DISTANCE FROM OCEAN. IMPORTANCE OF A CHAIN OF FORESTS

If forests are more than several hundred kilometers apart, rainfall decreases exponentially with distance from ocean. If otherwise rainfall does not necessarily decrease with distance from ocean

Makarieva, A. M.and Gorshkov, V. G.: Biotic pump of atmospheric moisture as driver of the hydrological cycle on land, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1013–1033, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-11-1013-2007, 2007

https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/11/1013/2007/

VEGETATION IS HYDRATED BY WATER THROUGH LEAVES: DEW, FOG, RAIN

Berry ZC, Emery NC, Gotsch SG, Goldsmith GR. Foliar water uptake: Processes, pathways, and integration into plant water budgets. Plant Cell Environ. 2019 Feb;42(2):410-423. doi:10.1111/pce.13439

Redwood leaves get 2-11% of their hydration through foliar uptake i.e. water coming through leaves

Limm EB, Simonin KA, Bothman AG, Dawson TE. Foliar water uptake: a common water acquisition strategy for plants of the redwood forest. Oecologia. 2009 Sep;161(3):449-59. doi: 10.1007/s00442-009-1400-3

DEW HELP HYDRATE PLANTS IN LANDSCAPE. Dew forms when nights are colder. Nights are colder when there are less clouds and dust.

"Fog,mist, dew, and other sources of water" F.W.Went from Yearbook of Agriculture 1955 Dew forming easier in semi-arid regions, in California. Dew forms easier on colder nights when there are no clouds or dust to prevent soil radiating infrared heat out high to the atmosphere.  https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/IND43894544/PDF

"Dew as a source of moisture" Luna Leopold https://eps.berkeley.edu/people/lunaleopold/(036)%20Dew%20as%20a%20Source%20of%20Plant%20Moisture.pdf

Dew main source of hydration for plants in arid and semi-arid areas

Ye, Y. & Peng, S.. (2011). "Review of dew action effect on plants". Shengtai Xuebao/ Acta Ecologica Sinica. 31. 3190-3196. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286030915_Review_of_dew_action_effect_on_plants

Meadows have 3 times as much dew as degraded meadows. So the dew is helping it survive. .15mm dew a night. Isotope analysis showed dew from evapotranspiration (as contrasted with creekwater, groundwater )

Siyuan He, Keith Richards, The role of dew in the monsoon season assessed via stable isotopes in an alpine meadow in Northern Tibet, Atmospheric Research, Volume 151, 2015, Pages 101-109, ISSN 0169-8095, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.02.014 , https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169809514001100

Dew and fog helps plants and animals survive

Wang, L., Kaseke, K. F., and Seely, M. K.: Effects of non-rainfall water inputs on ecosystem functions, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 4, e1179, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1179, 2017b

Dew hydrates lichen

Gauslaa,Y. (2014). Rain, dew, and humid air as drivers of morphology, function and spatial distribution in epiphytic lichens. The Lichenologist, 46(1), 1-16. doi:10.1017/S0024282913000753

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/lichenologist/article/rain-dew-and-humid-air-as-drivers-of-morphology-function-and-spatial-distribution-in-epiphytic-lichens/79A102C58012913310DA8BCEEAD0F737

Epiphytes take in water vapor and liquid water through its leaves

Holbrook, N. Michele, and Francis E. Putz. "Water relations of epiphytic and terrestrially-rooted strangler figs in a Venezuelan palm savanna." Oecologia 106, no. 4 (1996): 424-431.

Lange, Otto L., TG Allan Green, Angelika Meyer, and Hans Zellner. "Water relations and carbon dioxide exchange of epiphytic lichens in the Namib fog desert." Flora-Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants 202, no. 6 (2007): 479-487.

DEW CAN COME FROM EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

In Indiana, USA and Nice, France isotope analysis showed dew is from evapotranspiration. In desert of Gobabeb, Namibia near coast, the dew was from ocean. Tian, C., Wang, L., Beysens, D., Kaseke, K.~F. 2018 " Dew origins and formation mechanisms under different climate." AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts.

In semi-arid regions, dew contributes 3cm a year Negev Desert, Israel, 1.3cm a year in Goshute, Nevada City. In Almeria Spain, dew contribute 8% in wet season, 94% in dry season

Uclés, O., Villagarcía, L., Moro, M.J., Canton, Y. and Domingo, F.

(2014), Role of dewfall in the water balance of a semiarid coastal steppe ecosystem. Hydrol. Process., 28: 2271-2280 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9780

Dew contributed 3.7cm a year to water budget in Netherlands

Jacobs AF, Heusinkveld BG, Wichink Kruit RJ,Berkowicz SM. Contribution of dew to the water budget of a grassland area in the Netherlands. Water Resour Res 2006, 42, W03415

DEW FORMATION DUE TO WIND AND RANGE

Dew comes from soil moisture and atmosphere. Drier soil has less soil moisture contribution to dew.  Calmer conditions more contribution from soil moisture. Horizontal winds needed for dewfall (atmospheric contribution to dew) so more atmospheric moisture can condense. Under 10km seems to be range of dew.   .3mm dewfall with small winds, ~20 watts m^2 energy flux.

Garratt, J.R., Segal, M. On the contribution of atmospheric moisture to dew formation.

Boundary-Layer Meteorol 45, 209–236 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01066671 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01066671

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL BETWEEN COASTAL AREAS AND INLAND AREAS CAUSES LOSS OF FOG. FOG HELPS VEGETATION STAY HYDRATED.

"Clearing and present danger: Fog that nourishes California redwoods is declining" Tennesen Sci.American(2010) https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fog-that-nourishes-california-redwoods-declining/

"Climate context and ecological implications of summer fog decline in coast redwood region" Johnstone, Dawson PNAS March 9, 2010 107 (10) 4533-4538; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0915062107

Dawson, T. Fog in the California redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants.

Oecologia 117, 476–485 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050683

URBAN HEAT ISLANDS REDUCE FOG

Gautam, R., & Singh, M. K. (2018). Urban heat island over Delhi punches holes in widespread fog in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.Geophysical Research Letters,45,1114–1121. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL076794

FOG IMPACTS VEGETATION GROWTH

Qiao, N., Zhang, L., Huang, C., Jiao, W., Maggs-Kölling, G., Marais, E., & Wang, L. (2020). Satellite observed positive impacts of fog on vegetation. Geophysical Research Letters, 47, e2020GL088428. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088428

FOG CONTAINS MICROBES

Zhang, "What lives in fog" , The Atlantic (2018) https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/08/fog-microbes/568411/

FOG HELPS PLANTS IN SUMMER DROUGHT

28–66% of the water taken up by plants via roots during the summer drought came from fog rather than residual soil water from winter rain in California using stable isotope tracings

Corbin JD, Thomsen MA, Dawson TE, D’Antonio CM. Summer water use by California coastal prairie grasses: fog, drought, and community composition. Oecologia 2005, 145:511–521. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16001220/

"Coastal fog during summer drought improves the water status of sapling trees more than adult trees in a California pine forest." Baguskas SA, Still CJ, Fischer DT, D'Antonio CM, King JY. Oecologia. 2016 May;181(1):137-48. doi: 10.1007/s00442-016-3556-y. Epub 2016 Feb 6. PMID: 26852312

"Foliar uptake of fog in coastal California shrub species." Emery NC. Oecologia. 2016 Nov;182(3):731-42. doi: 10.1007/s00442-016-3712-4. Epub 2016 Aug 27. PMID: 27568025

Using fog collectors for communities:

"Fog as a fresh-water resource: overview and perspectives." Klemm O, Schemenauer RS, Lummerich A, Cereceda P, Marzol V, Corell D, van Heerden J, Reinhard D, Gherezghiher T, Olivier J, Osses P, Sarsour J, Frost E, Estrela MJ, Valiente JA, Fessehaye GM. Ambio. 2012 May;41(3):221-34. doi: 10.1007/s13280-012-0247-8. Epub 2012 Feb 12.

URBAN HEAT ISLANDS AFFECTS EXTREME PRECIPITATION

Urban heat islands have upward convection of water vapor that forms clouds that get pushed outside the city.

Steensen, B.M., Marelle, L., Hodnebrog, Ø. et al. Future urban heat island influence on precipitation.

Clim Dyn (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-06105-z

Zhang W, Villarini G, Vecchi GA, Smith JA (2018) Urbanization exacerbated the rainfall and flooding caused by hurricane Harvey in Houston. Nature 563(7731):384–388 https://sci-hub.st/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0676-z

URBAN HUMIDITY VS RURAL HUMIDITY

In London the urban heat island effect leads to less humidity during day. At night there is less dew because its hotter, so it retains its humidity. London has higher pressure than a rural area during night. It has higher pressure during day in winter months, and lower pressure during day in summer months when heat island is minimum. This is because evapotranspiration in rural areas increase pressure in summer, but with less ET in winter there is less pressure increase.

Lee, D.O. (1991), Urban—rural humidity differences in London. Int. J. Climatol., 11: 577-582. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370110509 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370110509

Urban areas have higher pressure and humidity than rural day and night. Aridity in city greater in summer.  Higher aridity and higher water temp contribute to higher pressure in city in warmer months. Later in summer city has more irrigation water watering gardens. City has humidity excess in summer because of river there, and because rural areas have chopped down their crops by end of summer.

Unger, J. (1999), Urban–rural air humidity differences in Szeged, Hungary. Int. J. Climatol., 19: 1509-1515. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(19991115)19:13<1509::AID-JOC453>3.0.CO;2-P

Urban Krefeld, Germany has higher humidity than rural areas. Thought to be because it doesnt have dew

Kuttler, W., Weber, S., Schonnefeld, J. and Hesselschwerdt, A. (2007), Urban/rural atmospheric water vapour pressure differences and urban moisture excess in Krefeld, Germany. Int. J. Climatol., 27: 2005-2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1558 https://sci-hub.3800808.com/10.1002/joc.1558

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY GOES DOWN AT NIGHT IN FORESTS

The undergrowth of a forest changes are absolute humidity goes down by 2mm,  at another forest it went down 8mm at night

Evans, G. C. “Ecological Studies on the Rain Forest of Southern Nigeria: II. The Atmospheric Environmental Conditions.” Journal of Ecology 27, no. 2 (1939): 436–82. https://doi.org/10.2307/2256374 , https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.2307/2256374

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY GOES DOWN AT NIGHTS

In west africa daytime absolute humidity around 6pm highest at 30g/m3 to lowest at 6am at 5g/m3

Adeyemi, B., and O. O. Abidoye. "Diurnal distribution of absolute humidity over West Africa using data retrieved from era-interim." Nigeria Journal of Pure and Applied Physics 8, no. 1 (2018): 1-15 https://sci-hub.st/10.4314/njpap.v8i1.1

URBAN EFFECTS ON RAIN

The urban heat island can lead to updrafts on leeward or downwind side of city which leads to rain

Han, JY., Baik, JJ. & Lee, H. Urban impacts on precipitation.

Asia-Pacific J Atmos Sci 50, 17–30 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-014-0016-7

Multiple effects to consider with cities and rain. Industry affects

Lowry WP. Urban effects on precipitation amount. Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment. 1998;22(4):477-520. doi:10.1177/030913339802200403

GLOBAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION INCREASING

From 1982 to 1997 ET increases 7mm a decade. Then it decreased til 2008. The soil moisture decreased during that time. Limit of moisture in Africa and Australia

Jung, M., Reichstein, M., Ciais, P. et al. Recent decline in the global land evapotranspiration trend due to limited moisture supply. Nature 467, 951–954 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09396

Global evapotranspiration is increasing 1mm a year from 1982-2009, with Amazon and South East Asia increasing the most. 80s and 90s increasing. 00s not quite so clear trend.

Zhenzhong Zeng et al 2012 Environ. Res. Lett. 7 014026  https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/014026

AIR POLLUTION CREATES HAZE WHICH LESSENS RAIN

Air pollution causes water vapor to condense onto it, leaving not enough to water to form larger cloud droplets which can turn into rain.

Downwind of California cities there is less rainfall because of air pollution

Givati, A., & Rosenfeld, D. (2004). Quantifying Precipitation Suppression Due to Air Pollution, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 43(7), 1038-1056.

WILDFIRES ARE CORRELATED WITH LESS HUMIDITY

Lu, Jiazheng & Zhou, Tejun & Li, Bo & Wu, Chuanping. (2018). Scale Analysis and Correlation Study of Wildfire and the Meteorological Factors That Influence It. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2018. 1-10. 10.1155/2018/5739805 file:///Users/macgenius/Downloads/Scale_Analysis_and_Correlation_Study_of_Wildfire_a.pdf

DENSER, OLD GROWTH FORESTS DO BETTER THAN YOUNGER FORESTS AND MANAGED FORESTS AGAINST WILDFIRES

Zald, H.S.J. and Dunn, C.J. (2018), Severe fire weather and intensive forest management increase fire severity in a multi-ownership landscape. Ecol Appl, 28: 1068-1080. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1710

Old growth forests have more shade, are cooler, and have more moist soil so better protect against wildfires

Lesmeister, D. B., Sovern, S. G., Davis, R. J., Bell, D. M., Gregory, M. J., and Vogeler, J. C.. 2019. Mixed-severity wildfire and habitat of an old-forest obligate. Ecosphere 10( 4):e02696. 10.1002/ecs2.2696

More protected forests have less wildfires

Bradley, C. M., Hanson, C. T., and DellaSala, D. A.. 2016. Does increased forest protection correspond to higher fire severity in frequent-fire forests of the western United States? Ecosphere 7( 10): e01492. 10.1002/ecs2.1492 https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ecs2.1492

Mature eucalyptus forests do better than logged regrowth forests against wildfire

Winoto-Lewin, Suyanti, Jennifer C. Sanger, and James B. Kirkpatrick. 2020. "Propensities of Old Growth, Mature and Regrowth Wet Eucalypt Forest, and Eucalyptus nitens Plantation, to Burn During Wildfire and Suffer Fire-Induced Crown Death" Fire 3, no. 2: 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire3020013

Downed logs soak up 25 times water and prevent fires

Garrett W Meigs et al 2016 Environ. Res. Lett. 11 045008 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/045008/meta

RELATIVE HUMIDITY, TEMP, RAIN, WIND SPEED CORRELATE WITH WILDFIRE

Lu, Jiazheng & Zhou, Tejun & Li, Bo & Wu, Chuanping. (2018). Scale Analysis and Correlation Study of Wildfire and the Meteorological Factors That Influence It. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2018. 1-10. 10.1155/2018/5739805 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325928660_Scale_Analysis_and_Correlation_Study_of_Wildfire_and_the_Meteorological_Factors_That_Influence_It

FOG CAN DECREASE WILDFIRES

In California summer fog can reduce drought probability and wildfire risk

Emery, N. C., D'Antonio, C. M., and Still, C. J.. 2018. Fog and live fuel moisture in coastal California shrublands. Ecosphere 9( 4):e02167. 10.1002/ecs2.2167 https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.2167

GROUNDWATER DECREASES WILDFIRES

Groundwater depletion leads to hydrological droughts. In Borneo this correlated with the wildfires , which were burning peatlands.

Taufik, M., Torfs, P. J., Uijlenhoet, R., Jones, P. D., Murdiyarso, D., & Van Lanen, H. A. (2017). Amplification of wildfire area burnt by hydrological drought in the humid tropics. Nature Climate Change.

Closer groundwater is to surface, less risk of fire

Wo ̈sten, J.H.M., E. Clymans, S.E. Page, J.O. Rieley, and S.H. Limin. 2008. Peat–Water Interrelationships in a Tropical Peatland Ecosystem in Southeast Asia. Hydropedology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2007.07.010

MORE VEGETATIVE COVER HELPS CLOSE WATER AND MATTER CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEM

Ripl, W. & Eiseltová, Martina. (2009). Sustainable land management by restoration of short water cycles and prevention of irreversible matter losses from topsoils. Plant, Soil and Environment. 55. 404-410. 10.17221/133/2009-PSE. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288438537_Sustainable_land_management_by_restoration_of_short_water_cycles_and_prevention_of_irreversible_matter_losses_from_topsoils

WETLANDS REDUCE FLOOD DAMAGE

Narayan, S., Beck, M.W., Wilson, P. et al. The Value of Coastal Wetlands for Flood Damage Reduction in the Northeastern USA.

Sci Rep 7, 9463 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09269-z

WETLANDS CREATE RAIN, INCREASE HUMIDITY, AND LOWER TEMPERATURE

Liu, Y., Sheng, L. & Liu, J. Impact of wetland change on local climate in semi-arid zone of Northeast China. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 25, 309–320 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-015-0735-4

Sudd wetland in upper Nile which is approx 150x150mile in size, if drained would lower humidity by 30-40% during dry season and temperature would rise 4-6 celsius. During wet season impact is small <10%. This is in area of Sudd and downwind. Their conclusion is that impact on rainfall is small because of amount of water , but if its a catalyst for rainfall is something paper does not take into account https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2004WR003792

Mohamed, Yasir A., B. J. J. M. Van den Hurk, H. H. G. Savenije, and W. G. M. Bastiaanssen. "Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology." Water Resources Research 41, no. 8 (2005).

WETLANDS AND ITS EVAPOTRANSPIRATION PULSE IN SIZE OVER MONTHS

"Patterns and drivers of evapotranspiration in South American Wetlands" Fleischman et al https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-353527/v1/04554b0f-8f32-4769-9293-a2661958bee2.pdf?c=1631880949

Wetland size related to snow runoff in Yellowstone area

Andrew M. Ray, Adam J. Sepulveda, Kathryn M. Irvine, Siri K.C. Wilmoth, David P. Thoma, Debra A. Patla, Wetland drying linked to variations in snowmelt runoff across Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 666, 2019, Pages 1188-1197, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969719307946

Angela Anda, Gabor Soos, Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva, Veronika Kozma-Bognar, "Regional evapotranspiration from a wetland in Central Europe, in a 16-year period without human intervention", Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Volume 205, 2015, Pages 60-72,

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION : WETLANDS > RICE > PASTURE/AG LAND

Elke Eichelmann, Kyle S. Hemes, Sara H. Knox, Patricia Y. Oikawa, Samuel D. Chamberlain, Cove Sturtevant, Joseph Verfaillie, Dennis D. Baldocchi,

The effect of land cover type and structure on evapotranspiration from agricultural and wetland sites in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, California, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,

Volumes 256–257, 2018, Pages 179-195, https://sci-hub.st/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2018.03.007

Wetlands have 30% more evapotranspiration than fields or pastures. They cool environment

Huryna, H., Brom, J. & Pokorny, J. The importance of wetlands in the energy balance of an agricultural landscape. Wetlands Ecol Manage 22, 363–381 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-013-9334-2

WETLANDS AFFECT MICROCLIMATE

1 sq km wetlands in Turkey decreased temperature for about 1km around them

Çağdaş Kuşçu Şimşek, Halime Ödül, Investigation of the effects of wetlands on micro-climate, Applied Geography, Volume 97, 2018, Pages 48-60 https://sci-hub.yncjkj.com/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.05.018

Looks at historical impact on climate due to wetland loss. Argues for different definition of climate from thermodynamic view that regional differences are important - wetlands lead to cooler microclimates. Satellite pictures show fog over wetlands.

Pokorný J., Hesslerová P., Huryna H., Harper D. (2016) Indirect and

Direct Thermodynamic Effects of Wetland Ecosystems on Climate. In: Vymazal J. (eds) Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38927-1_7 and https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38927-1_7

BLOCKING DRAINS, REMOVING DYKES REBUILDS SOIL SPONGE & REDUCES PEAK RIVER FLOW DURING FLOODS

Pearce "It’s Not Just Climate: Are We Ignoring Other Causes of Disasters?" Yale Environment360 (2020) https://e360.yale.edu/features/its-not-just-climate-are-we-ignoring-other-causes-of-disasters

SPATIAL TEMPORAL BEHAVIOR OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Mu, L., Lu, Y., Liu, M. et al. Characterizing the spatiotemporal variations of evapotranspiration and aridity index in mid-western China from 2001 to 2016.

J. Arid Land 13, 1230–1243 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-021-0087-0

Sun, Z., Hu, C., Wu, D. et al. Estimation of evaporation losses based on stable isotopes of stream water in a mountain watershed. Acta Geochim 40, 176–183 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-021-00452-8

NONLINEAR THERMODYNAMICS OF WATER CYCLE

Ripl, Wilhelm. (2004). Water: The bloodstream of the biosphere. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences. 358. 1921-34. 10.1098/rstb.2003.1378. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8914815_Water_The_bloodstream_of_the_biosphere

BIOTIC PUMP

On rainy days in Amazon with high water vapor the pressure is higher than rainless days. On rainy days with low water vapor the pressure is lower than rainless days. This suggests that when rain forms and a lot of water condenses that low pressure system forms that can suck in air towards forest.

Makarieva, A. M., Gorshkov, V. G., Sheil, D., Nobre, A. D., Bunyard, P., & Li, B. (2014). Why Does Air Passage over Forest Yield More Rain? Examining the Coupling between Rainfall, Pressure, and Atmospheric Moisture Content, Journal of Hydrometeorology, 15(1), 411-426. Retrieved Mar 19, 2022, from https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/15/1/jhm-d-12-0190_1.xml

 Makarieva, Anastassia; Gorshkov, Victor (2010-01-01). "The Biotic Pump: Condensation, atmospheric dynamics and climate". International Journal of Water. 5 (4): 365–385. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.459.6577. doi:10.1504/IJW.2010.038729

Makarieva, A. M.; Gorshkov, V. G. (2007-03-27). "Biotic pump of atmospheric moisture as driver of the hydrological cycle on land" (PDF). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11 (2): 1013–1033. doi:10.5194/hess-11-1013-2007

Bunyard, Peter Paul (2015-08-21). How the Biotic Pump links the hydrological and the rainforest to climate : Is it for real? How can we prove it?. Universidad Sergio Arboleda. doi:10.22518/9789588745886

Sheil, Douglas; Murdiyarso, Daniel (2009-04-01). "How Forests Attract Rain: An Examination of a New Hypothesis". BioScience. 59 (4): 341–347. doi:10.1525/bio.2009.59.4.12

The biotic pump could explain why deforestration leads to our drought-flood cycle

Makarieva, Anastassia & Nefiodov, A. & Nobre, Antonio & Sheil, Douglas & Nobre, Paulo & Pokorný, Jan & Hesslerova, Petra & Li, Bai-Lian. (2022). Vegetation Impact on Atmospheric Moisture Transport Under Increasing Land-Ocean Temperature Contrasts. SSRN Electronic Journal. 10.2139/ssrn.4030350 https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.12880

WATER & CARBON CYCLE COUPLING

David Schimel, B Braswell, W Parton , "Equilibration of the terrestrial water, nitrogen, and carbon cycles", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 94, pp. 8280–8283, August 1997, Colloquium Paper https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/94/16/8280.full.pdf

RIVERS, AND CARBON & SEDIMENT LOSS TO SEA DUE TO WATER CYCLE DECAY

Ripl, Wilhelm. (2010). Losing fertile matter to the sea: How landscape entropy affects climate. Int. J. of Water. 5. 353 - 364. 10.1504/IJW.2010.038728.

Ripl, W. & Wolter, Klaus-Dieter. (2001). Mass flow management based on the energy transport reaction model (ETR-model). 53. 4-9 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287824235_Mass_flow_management_based_on_the_energy_transport_reaction_model_ETR-model

Ripl, Wilhelm & Hildmann, Christian. (2000). Dissolved load transported by rivers as an indicator of landscape sustainability. Ecological Engineering - ECOL ENG. 14. 373-387. 10.1016/S0925-8574(99)00062-2 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248412491_Dissolved_load_transported_by_rivers_as_an_indicator_of_landscape_sustainability

Ripl, W. & Hildmann, Christian & Janssen, T. & Gerlach, I. & Heller, S. & Ridgill, Steve. (1995). Sustainable redevelopment of a river and its catchment--the Stor River Project. Restoration of Stream Ecosystems - An Integrated Catchment Approach. 76-112

VEGETATION REGULATES HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE : GAIA HYPOTHESIS

Roberts, J.: "The role of plant physiology in hydrology: looking backwards and forwards", Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 256–269, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-11-256-2007, 2007. https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/11/256/2007/hess-11-256-2007.pdf

Léo Lemordant, Pierre Gentine, Abigail S. Swann, Benjamin I. Cook, Jacob Scheff, "Critical impact of vegetation physiology on the continental hydrologic cycle in response to increasing CO2 " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Apr 2018, 115 (16) 4093-4098; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1720712115 https://www.pnas.org/content/115/16/4093

D. C. Le Maitre ,"Predicting Invasive Species Impacts on Hydrological Processes: The Consequences of Plant Physiology for Landscape Processes", Weed Technology ,Vol. 18, Invasive Weed Symposium (2004), pp. 1408-1410 (3 pages) Published By: Cambridge University Press https://www.jstor.org/stable/3989661

Zhu B., M. Huang, Y. Cheng, X. Xie, Y. Liu, G. Bisht, and X. Chen. 2021. "Impact of vegetation physiology and phenology on watershed hydrology in a semiarid watershed in the Pacific Northwest in a changing climate." Water Resources Research 57, no. 3:e2020WR028394. PNNL-SA-154491. doi:10.1029/2020WR028394

CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Chahine, M. The hydrological cycle and its influence on climate. Nature 359, 373–380 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1038/359373a0

SEA LEVEL RISES DUE TO CONTINENTAL FRESHWATER CHANGE

R Dill, H Dobslaw, Seasonal variations in global mean sea level and consequences on the excitation of length-of-day changes, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 218, Issue 2, August 2019, Pages 801–816, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggz201

Durand, F., Piecuch, C.G., Becker, M. et al. Impact of Continental Freshwater Runoff on Coastal Sea Level.

Surv Geophys 40, 1437–1466 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-019-09536-w

ATMOSPHERIC RIVER CONTRIBUTION TO WATER BUDGET

In california atmospheric rivers contribute 20-50% to states water budget.

Dettinger, M.D.; Ralph, F.M.; Das, T.; Neiman, P.J.; Cayan, D.R.

Atmospheric Rivers, Floods and the Water Resources of California. Water 2011, 3, 445-478.

https://doi.org/10.3390/w3020445

Flooding of rivers from atmospheric rivers

Ralph, F. M., Neiman, P. J., Wick, G. A., Gutman, S. I., Dettinger, M. D., Cayan, D. R., and White, A. B. (2006), Flooding on California's Russian River: Role of atmospheric rivers, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L13801, doi:10.1029/2006GL026689

Neiman, P. J., Schick, L. J., Ralph, F. M., Hughes, M., & Wick, G. A. (2011). Flooding in Western Washington: The connection to atmospheric rivers. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 12(6), 1337–1358. https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JHM1358.1

Ralph, F. M., Coleman, T., Neiman, P. J., Zamora, R. J., & Dettinger, M. D. (2013). Observed Impacts of Duration and Seasonality of Atmospheric-River Landfalls on Soil Moisture and Runoff in Coastal Northern California, Journal of Hydrometeorology, 14(2), 443-459. Retrieved Mar 1, 2022, from https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/14/2/jhm-d-12-076_1.xml

 Pacific Ocean teleconnections responsible for Pacific Coast Atmospheric Rivers

Collow, A. B. M., Mersiovsky, H., & Bosilovich, M. G. (2020). Large-Scale Influences on Atmospheric River–Induced Extreme Precipitation Events along the Coast of Washington State, Journal of Hydrometeorology, 21(9), 2139-2156. Retrieved Mar 1, 2022, from https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/21/9/jhmD190272.xml

WATER BUDGET AND FRESHWATER LOSS

Munier, S., Palanisamy, H., Maisongrande, P., Cazenave, A., and Wood, E.

F.: Global runoff anomalies over 1993–2009 estimated from coupled Land–Ocean–Atmosphere water budgets and its relation with climate variability, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 3647–3658, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-3647-2012 , 2012.

Dai, A., Qian, T., Trenberth, K. E., & Milliman, J. D. (2009). Changes in Continental Freshwater Discharge from 1948 to 2004, Journal of Climate, 22(10), 2773-2792. Retrieved Feb 28, 2022, from https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/22/10/2008jcli2592.1.xml

Nernec, J. "The concept of runoff in the global water budget." In Variations in the global water budget, pp. 479-488. Springer, Dordrecht, 1983 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-6954-4_37

J.L. Chen, C.R. Wilson, D.P. Chambers, R.S. Nerem,  B.D. Tapley, Seasonal Global Water Mass Budget and Mean Sea Level Variations, Geophysical Research LettersVolume 25, Issue 19 p. 3555-3558  https://geodesy.geology.ohio-state.edu/course/refpapers/GRL1998.pdf

GROUNDWATER DEPLETION INCREASES SEA LEVEL

from 1900-2008 groundwater loss led to about 1.2 cm sea level rise

Konikow,Leonard F. "Contribution of global groundwater depletion since 1900 to sea‐level rise." Geophysical Research Letters 38, no. 17 (2011) https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2011GL048604

GROUNDWATER HYDRATES PLANTS

Isotope tracking shows transpired water from plants is sourced 49% from groundwater in dry season, 28% in dry season

Barbeta, Adrià, and Josep Peñuelas. “Relative contribution of

groundwater to plant transpiration estimated with stable isotopes.” Scientific reports vol. 7,1 10580. 5 Sep. 2017, doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09643-x  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5585407/

HOW HUMANS HAVE CHANGED THE WATER CYCLE

Barnett, T. P., Pierce, D. W., Hidalgo, H. G., Bonfils, C., Santer, B. D., Das, T., Bala, G., Wood, A. W., Nozawa, T., Mirin, A. A., Cayan, D. R., & Dettinger, M. D. (2008). Human-induced changes in the hydrology of the Western United States. Science, 319(5866), 1080-1083. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152538

Savenije, Hubert HG, Arjen Y. Hoekstra, and Pieter van der Zaag. "Evolving water science in the Anthropocene." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 1 (2014): 319-332

UNSOLVED PROBLEMS OF HYDROLOGY

Blöschl, Günter, Marc FP Bierkens, Antonio Chambel, Christophe Cudennec, Georgia Destouni, Aldo Fiori, James W. Kirchner et al. "Twenty-three unsolved problems in hydrology (UPH)–a community perspective." Hydrological sciences journal 64, no. 10 (2019): 1141-1158.

GENERAL OVERVIEW HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Lahoz, W.A., De Lannoy, G.J.M. Closing the Gaps in Our Knowledge of the Hydrological Cycle over Land: Conceptual Problems. Surv Geophys 35, 623–660 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-013-9221-7 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10712-013-9221-7

Vargas Godoy, M.R., Markonis, Y., Hanel, M. et al. The Global Water Cycle Budget: A Chronological Review. Surv Geophys 42, 1075–1107 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-021-09652-6

Trenberth, Kevin E., Lesley Smith, Taotao Qian, Aiguo Dai and John T. Fasullo. “Estimates of the Global Water Budget and Its Annual Cycle Using Observational and Model Data.” Journal of Hydrometeorology 8 (2007): 758-769.

Oki, Taikan & Entekhabi, Dara & Harrold, T.. (2004). The global water cycle. Washington DC American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monograph Series. 225-237. 10.1029/150GM18 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260072736_The_global_water_cycle https://sci-hub.st/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38927-1_7

CLIMATE MODELS MISSING UNDERSTANDING OF PARTS OF HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Stevens, Bjorn, and Sandrine Bony. "What are climate models missing?." Science 340, no. 6136 (2013): 1053-1054 https://www.wcrp-climate.org/images/documents/grand_challenges/GC4_cloudsStevensBony_S2013.pdf

WHERE CLIMATE MODELS AND DATA DISAGREE

Singer SF. Lack of Consistency between Modeled and Observed Temperature Trends. Energy & Environment. 2011;22(4):375-406. doi:10.1260/0958-305X.22.4.375

LAND HEATING UP FASTER THAN SEA

One argument for why land temperatures heat faster than sea is because land is drying out. This is called Surface energy balance argument

Sutton, R. T., Dong, B., and Gregory, J. M. (2007), Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change: IPCC AR4 model results and comparison with observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L02701, doi:10.1029/2006GL028164

Another argument for the land-sea temp difference is that the vertical temp gradient over land is less because there is less water vapor over land than sea.

Joshi, M.M., Gregory, J.M., Webb, M.J. et al. Mechanisms for the land/sea warming contrast exhibited by simulations of climate change. Clim Dyn 30, 455–465 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-007-0306-1

SEASONAL SHIFTS IN HEATING MAYBE DUE TO DRYING OF LAND

Santer, Benjamin D., Stephen Po-Chedley, Mark D. Zelinka, Ivana Cvijanovic, Céline Bonfils, Paul J. Durack, Qiang Fu et al. "Human influence on the seasonal cycle of tropospheric temperature." Science 361, no. 6399 (2018): eaas8806 https://sci-hub.se/10.1126/science.aas8806

Randel, W The seasonal fingerprint of climate change Science 2018-07-20 361(6399): 227-228 https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aat9097

MIDLATITUDES ARE DRYING UP

The midlatitudes are drying up faster in summer

Douville, H., & Plazzotta, M. (2017). Midlatitude summer drying: An underestimated threat in CMIP5 models? Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 9967– 9975. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075353

AS WATER CYCLE HEAT ENGINE INCREASES IN POWER, LESS POWER FOR ATMOS CIRCULATION AND EXTREME WINDS

Laliberté, F., J. Zika, L. Mudryk, P. J. Kushner, J. Kjellsson, and K.

Döös. "Constrained work output of the moist atmospheric heat engine in awarming climate." Science 347, no. 6221 (2015): 540-543 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jan-Zika/publication/271592207_Atmospheric_dynamics_Constrained_work_output_of_the_moist_atmospheric_heat_engine_in_a_warming_climate/links/56bb54c408ae0c9607e09535/Atmospheric-dynamics-Constrained-work-output-of-the-moist-atmospheric-heat-engine-in-a-warming-climate.pdf

POWER OUTPUT OF GLOBAL WATER CYCLE

The power approaches the thermodynamic limit of whats possible. latent heat 54 W/m^2. dry convection 1.5 W/m2 . moist convection 2.5 W/m2

Kleidon, A. and Renner, M.: Thermodynamic limits of hydrologic cycling within the Earth system: concepts, estimates and implications, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 2873–2892, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-2873-2013, 2013 https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/17/2873/2013/hess-17-2873-2013.pdf

 Diurnal water cycle

Konings, A. G., Feng, X., Molini, A., Manzoni, S., Vico, G., and Porporato, A. (2012), Thermodynamics of an idealized hydrologic cycle, Water Resour. Res., 48, W05527, doi:10.1029/2011WR011264

NONLINEAR THERMODYNAMICS VIEW. CHARACTERIZING CLIMATE: TEMP GRADIENT AS IMPORTANT PARAMETER IN CLIMATE

It is temperature gradient rather than mean temperature that is important in climate change because that is the source of hurricanes and power in weather system

Pokorný, Jan, Petra Hesslerová, Hanna Huryna, and David Harper.

"Indirect and direct thermodynamic effects of wetland ecosystems on climate." In Natural and Constructed Wetlands, pp. 91-108. Springer

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